Journal articles: 'Education, Bilingual and Multicultural|Education, English as a Second Language|Hispanic American Studies' – Grafiati (2024)

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Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Speech–language pathologists who speak more than one language and who are members of the American Speech–Language–Hearing Association self-identify in one yes/no question whether they have the proficiency level to be bilingual service providers. This research note describes a preliminary attempt to address the very practical issue of whether and in what circ*mstances Spanish–English bilinguals can accurately judge their proficiency levels in both languages. The research question is: Will bilingual adults accurately identify their first language and second language proficiency levels using a self-assessment when compared to a commonly used standardized norm-referenced test (SNRT) in both formal and informal contexts across the following outcome measures: (a) overall proficiency; (b) listening; (c) speaking; (d) reading; and (e) writing? Design/methodology/approach: Classification accuracy studies require at least 34 participants. Thirty-nine participants completed the commonly used Language Use Questionnaire (LUQ) self-assessment and the commonly used Woodco*ck–Muñoz Language Survey SNRT (WMLS-III). For this pre-pilot study, participants were Spanish–English bilingual university students. Data and analysis: Forty likelihood ratios (LRs) were calculated. Benchmarks for interpreting LRs for classification accuracy studies were applied to identify the likelihood of an individual being proficient or non-proficient in two languages. Findings/conclusions: For the overall proficiency and formal speaking proficiency outcomes in Spanish, positive LRs met the benchmark for strong agreement. Originality: The current study is the first to show that Spanish–English bilingual adults can accurately judge their Spanish proficiency levels for two specific outcome measures. Significance/implications: These results are important for two reasons. First, they suggest that Spanish–English bilingual adults can accurately judge their overall proficiency levels in Spanish. Second, they identify which outcome measures from the LUQ and WMLS-III should be considered in a future classification accuracy study.

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<span>Those of us who teach chemistry at the college or university level in the United States are faced with the problem of conveying our course content to an increasingly number of students for whom English is a second language; a problem that has been faced by our colleagues in Latin America for generations. We therefore conducted a study designed to probe the conceptual knowledge of bilingual students who studied chemistry from English language textbooks in a classroom environment in which the language of discourse was Spanish. Interviews were done with undergraduate science majors enrolled in general chemistry at the University of Puerto Rico and with graduate students in the Department of Chemistry at Purdue University. Analysis of the interview data led to the creation of five categories: (1) use of Spanish, (2) avoidance of communication, (3) confusion of terms; (4) use of examples and new words, and (5) use of terms without mastery.</span>

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First languages are assumed to be learned in the home. Since 90 to 97 percent of Deaf children are born to hearing parents who do not know American Sigh Language (ASL), their first exposure to ASL will be in the school setting. Deaf children will spend approximately 50 percent of their waking hours with teachers, who are their main language models. However, a substantial number of teachers of the Deaf report that they learned to sign from their students, only 45 percent of teachers claim they can sign as well as their students, and only 33 percent claim to understand their student's signing as well as they understand English. Moreover, over the years, educators created a variety of manual codes for English (MCE) in the mistaken notion that manually coding English would promote literacy in English. However, studies have shown that the key to reading and writing success was students'knowledge of ASL and ASL discourse as well as the ability to use ASL to approach learning the second language. The key to educational success for Deaf children lies in their being taught in a truly bilingual manner. Bilingual education has been shown to be successful if the first language is strong and there are adequate language models present. Thousands of Deaf children are currently being taught by the impoverished MCE model and by hearing teachers who could not pass the native signing requirements. More discussion and training in ASL proficiency should be required of educators of the Deaf and those training to become educators of the Deaf. In the crucial preschool years, teachers of Deaf children should be Deaf or Children of Deaf Adults (CODAs) themselves to ensure the future success of our Deaf students.

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Though the concept ‘global learner’ has become a buzzword in education, few have critically analysed it. This article examines three types of ‘unlikely global learners’ who are not usually considered global learners even though they could be, according to a current definition: Ma¯ori–English bilingual students in Aotearoa/New Zealand; an American student who studied abroad in the U.K. in ways not valued in the dominant study-abroad discourse of immersion; and immigrant English-as-a-Second-Language students in the U.S. I analyse what their erasure as global learners tells us, arguing that the notion of global learner acts as what Walter Benjamin calls a phantasmagoria that masks the power relations involved. Though critical of ‘global learners’ as a globalist concept, I call for expanding the notion in order to engage with current transformations in education.

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In an effort to become more competitive in the global market, Colombia, as many other Latin American countries, has declared English the dominant foreign language to be taught in schools and universities across the country. To support this measure, in the last 16 years, the government, through its National Ministry of Education, has launched a series of programs such as National Program of Bilingualism 2004-2019; the Program for Strengthening the Development of Competences in Foreign Languages; The National English Program: Colombia Very Well 2015-2025; and most recently, Bilingual Colombia 2014-2018. Results from studies conducted by local researchers across the country suggest that the regulation has posed a series of challenges for public primary school teachers, which these programs have not been able to address. These challenges can be divided into two categories: professional and work related. The purpose of this article is twofold: First, the article intends to provide a critical overview of the four programs that the Colombian government has launched since 2004. Second, the article aims to present some conclusions and recommendations for language policy design and implementation in Colombia.

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OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: The goals of this project are to: (1) Help research teams better understand, anticipate, and adapt research to address the needs of diverse communities. (2) Help clinicians and researchers develop patient-centered communication skills needed for more frequent and meaningful engagement of research participants. (3) Identify additional service support needs of clinical research teams not currently offered by other centers (e.g., translation services by certified translators, access to bilingual/bicultural research staff) so they can effectively recruit diverse communities. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Mixed methods evaluation approaches centered on obtaining community and academic input aimed at revising the tool to enhance its feasibility and relevance. Round one of focus groups were conducted (4), 2 with a diverse group of community stakeholders, 2 with a diverse group of academic stakeholders. Focus group feedback guided HLCR Assessment Tool revisions. This round of focus groups, served as an opportunity for community and academic stakeholders to discuss shared and divergent priorities related to the development and utilization of the tool. Feedback from these sessions guided a second set of revisions to the tool. Brief surveys were administered at each time point to gather participant demographic data. For the first round of focus groups with community stakeholders, 2 diverse groups totaling 19 people participated (11 female, 7 male, 1 no answer; 6 Asian/Pacific Islander, 6 Black/African American, 4 Latino/Hispanic, and 3 White/Caucasian). Participants served a variety of populations including seniors, youth, underserved, Muslim Americans, Bangladeshi, Arab, South Asian, refugees, community health centers, service organizations, 1st generation students, Latinos, multi-ethnic groups, limited English speaking, people with lupus, un/underinsured, people with HIV, Korean Americans, African Americans, and the disability community. Data pending on the first round of focus groups with academic stakeholders. All participants of the first round of focus groups will be invited to return to a second round of focus groups (2), this time only 2 groups will be held, and these will combine community and academic participants in each focus group. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: Along with formatting and grammatical revisions, recurring recommendations focused on considerations/clarifications in 3 main areas: compensation for all stakeholders, developing a common language and clarifying terms, and aligning the research process with the community. Considerations around compensation was mentioned in discussions related to multiple tool domains. In particular, community stakeholders recommended inclusion and consideration of compensation not just for research participants but also community partners, sites, community representatives, and other academic partners. It was also very important to make sure the form of compensation for both community partners and participants aligns with what was being asked of them. Community stakeholders sited a few examples where they were involved in studies where the time and requirements for participation were not commensurate with the compensation they received or the study budget did not include compensation for community partner effort. Along with edits to questions in the HLCR Assessment Tool, community stakeholders also recommended education for budget/finance personnel on fair compensation for research participants and community partners. In both focus groups, there was also confusion around specific terms and an identified need to develop a common language and clarify terms among all those involved in the research process. More specifically, terms such as community, culture, community of focus, community partners, accessible, and convenient were identified as needing further definition or clarification. Through the focus groups, we learned the valuable lesson that it cannot be assumed broad terms or even seemingly specific ones will be interpreted the same by everyone or have the same meaning in different contexts. Therefore, it needs to be very clear what these terms mean and who or what they represent. Finally, the community stakeholders emphasized throughout both focus groups the importance of making sure that the HLCR Assessment Tool unpack and explicitly emphasize how the research process can align and should align with community needs, communication structures, influencers, and assets. Some factors community stakeholders suggested be considered were: (1) Where the researcher is in the research process; (2) How community members prefer to communicate with each other; (3) Stigma/biases (e.g., class) that may be pervasive in a particular community; (4) Identification of key community influencers/gatekeepers; (5) Learning about a community’s assets along with their needs. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: Currently, there is dearth of resources focused on increasing diverse engagement in clinical and translational research, and consequently, research teams have little or no knowledge or support for how or when to engage community partners in clinical or translational research. The goal of this project is to help fill that gap with a tool to guide clinical and translational research teams in assessing the health literacy and culturally responsive components of their research projects to improve recruitment of diverse populations. Feedback on the first iteration of the HLCR Assessment Tool helped us identify the priorities for community stakeholders and better understand their concerns and needs around engagement with academic partners in clinical and translational research. This understanding will help us enhance the relevance and usefulness of the HLCR Assessment Tool so that clinical and translational science researchers more effectively engage with community partners and help ensure the community’s needs are better aligned with. Therefore, developing and pilot testing this tool can offer a significant opportunity for clinical and translational sciences institutions to enable their researchers and their teams to teams better understand, anticipate, and adapt to the cultural and health literacy needs of diverse populations. More specifically, this tool can: (1) Help clinicians develop the patient-centered communication skills needed to facilitate more frequent and meaningful engagement of potential research participants during medical visits to truly make every healthcare encounter an opportunity for research. (2) Help clinical and translational sciences institutes identify additional service support clinical research teams will need access to in order to effectively recruit diverse communities, that are not currently not supported [e.g., translation services by certified translators, access to bilingual/bicultural research staff at all level (i.e., study coordinators, research assistants, etc.), etc.].

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Language skills are essential for early childhood, being able to speak clearly and process speech sounds, understand others, express ideas, and interact with others are the building blocks for a child's development. Therefore, this study will examine the effect of the Inside Outside Circle (IOC) instructional strategies with media images on children's language skills. This research is a quasi-experimental design with a posttest only and using a control group. The sample in this study were children in two kindergartens in the village of Banjar Tegal. Data analysis in this study was carried out by quantitative descriptive methods using t-test analysis techniques. The results of this study in kindergarten students in Banjar Tegal Village show that there is an influence of the IOC learning model with picture media on children's language skills (tcount = 6.28> ttable = 2.00). This shows that language skills achieved by groups of children participating in learning with the IOC model with drawing media are better than groups of children who attend learning without the IOC model. The implication is that further research is expected to develop other aspects of child devel- opment through the IOC model. Keywords: Children Language skills, Image media, Inside-Outside Circle Instructional Strategies Reference: Afrida, Ni., & Mahriza, R. (2019). Visual and Cognitive Media : The Language Acquisition of Children With Dyslexia in Aceh. IJLRES - International Journal on Language , Research and Education Studies, 3(1), 112–126. https://doi.org/10.30575/2017/IJLRES-2019010409 Al Otaiba, S., & Fuchs, D. (2006). Who are the young children for whom best practices in reading are ineffective? An experimental and longitudinal study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(5), 414–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390050401 Asrifan, A. (2015). 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Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027238.Interpreting Jin, S. H., & Boling, E. (2010). Instructional Designer’s Intentions and Learners’ Perceptions of the Instructional Functions of Visuals in an e-Learning Context. Journal of Visual Literacy, 29(2), 143–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/23796529.2010.11674678 Johanson, M., & Arthur, A. M. (2016). Improving the Language Skills of Pre- kindergarten Students: Preliminary Impacts of the Let’s Know! Experimental Curriculum. Child and Youth Care Forum, 45(3), 367–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9332-z Justice, L. M., & Pence, K. L. (2004). Addressing the Language and Literacy Needs of Vulnerable Children: Innovative Strategies in the Context of Evidence-Based Practice. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 25(4), 173–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/15257401040250040201 Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. 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Modeling Developmental Language Difficulties From School Entry Into Adulthood: Literacy, Mental Health, and Employment Outcomes. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52(December), 1401–1416. Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multi-Media Learning : Prinsip-Prinsip dan Aplikasi. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. NICHD. (2000). The relation of child care to cognitive and language development. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. Child Development, 71(4), 960–980. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11016559 Noble, C., Sala, G., Peter, M., Lingwood, J., Rowland, C., Gobet, F., & Pine, J. (2019). The impact of shared book reading on children’s language skills: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100290 28(September), 100290. Oades-Sese, G. V., & Li, Y. (2011). Attachment Relationships As Predictors Of Language Skills For At-Risk Bilingual Preschool Children. Psychology in the Schools, 48(7), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits Pace, A., Alper, R., Burchinal, M. R., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2019). Measuring success: Within and cross-domain predictors of academic and social trajectories in elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 112– 125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.001 Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., & Moore-Page, D. C. (2006). Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Research, 46(28), 4646–4674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.023 Perfetti, C. A., Liu, Y., & Tan, L. H. (2005). The lexical constituency model: Some implications of research on chinese for general theories of reading. Psychological Review, 112(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.112.1.43 Puriniawati, N. K., Putra, M., & Putra, D. K. N. S. (2014). Penerapan Model Pembelajaran Inside Outside Circle Berbantuan Media Balok Untuk Meningkatkan. 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The Routledge Handbook of language and culture represents a comprehensive study on the inextricable relationship between language and culture. It is structured into seven parts and 33 chapters. Part 1, Overview and historical background, by Farzad Sharifian, starts with an outline of the book and a synopsis of research on language and culture. The second chapter, John Leavitt’s Linguistic relativity: precursors and transformations discusses further the historical development of the concept of linguistic relativity, identifying different schools’ of thought views on the relation between language and culture. He also tries to demystify some misrepresentations held towards Boas, Sapir, and Whorf’ theories (pp. 24-26). Chapter 3, Ethnosyntax, by Anna Gladkova provides an overview of research on ethnosyntax, starting from the theoretical basis laid by Sapir and Whorf and investigates the differences between a narrow sense of ethnosyntax, which focuses on cultural meanings of various grammatical structures and a broader sense, which emphasises the pragmatic and cultural norms’ impact on the choice of grammatical structures. John Leavitt presents in the fourth chapter, titled Ethnosemantics, a historical account of research on meaning across cultures, introducing three traditions, i.e. ‘classical’ ethnosemantics (also referred to as ethnoscience or cognitive anthropology), Boasian cultural semantics (linguistically inspired anthropology) and Neohumboldtian comparative semantics (word-field theory, or content-oriented Linguistics). In Chapter 5, Goddard underlines the fact that ethnopragmatics investigates emic (or culture-internal) approaches to the use of different speech practices across various world languages, which accounts for the fact that there exists a connection between the cultural values or norms and the speech practices peculiar to a speech community. One of the key objectives of ethnopragmatics is to investigate ‘cultural key words’, i.e. words that encapsulate culturally construed concepts. The concept of ‘linguaculture’ (or languaculture) is tackled in Risager’s Chapter 6, Linguaculture: the language–culture nexus in transnational perspective. The author makes reference to American scholars that first introduced this notion, Paul Friedrich, who looks at language and culture as a single domain in which verbal aspects of culture are mingled with semantic meanings, and Michael Agar, for whom culture resides in language while language is loaded with culture. Risager himself brought forth a new global and transnational perspective on the concept of linguaculture, i.e. the use of language (linguistic practice) is seen as flows in people’s social networks and speech communities. These flows enhance as people migrate or learn new languages, in permanent dynamics. Lidia Tanaka’s Chapter 7, Language, gender, and culture deals with research on language, gender, and culture. According to her, the language-gender relationship has been studied by researchers from various fields, including psychology, linguistics, and anthropology, who mainly consider gender as a construct that preserves inequalities in society, with the help of language, too. Tanaka lists diachronically different approaches to language and gender, focusing on three specific ones: gender stereotyped linguistic resources, semantically, pragmatically or lexically designated language features (including register) and gender-based spoken discourse strategies (talking-time imbalances or interruptions). In Chapter 8, Language, culture, and context, Istvan Kecskes delves into the relationship between language, culture, and context from a socio-cognitive perspective. The author considers culture to be a set of shared knowledge structures that encapsulate the values, norms, and customs that the members of a society have in common. According to him, both language and context are rooted in culture and carriers of it, though reflecting culture in a different way. Language encodes past experience with different contexts, whereas context reflects present experience. The author also provides relevant examples of formulaic language that demonstrate the functioning of both types of context, within the larger interplay between language, culture, and context. Sara Miller’s Chapter 9, Language, culture, and politeness reviews traditional approaches to politeness research, with particular attention given to ‘discursive approach’ to politeness. Much along the lines of the previous chapter, Miller stresses the role of context in judgements of (im)polite language, maintaining that individuals represent active agents who challenge and negotiate cultural as well as linguistic norms in actual communicative contexts. Chapter 10, Language, culture, and interaction, by Peter Eglin focuses on language, culture and interaction from the perspective of the correspondence theory of meaning. According to him, abstracting language and culture from their current uses, as if they were not interdependent would not lead to an understanding of words’ true meaning. David Kronenfeld introduces in Chapter 11, Culture and kinship language, a review of research on culture and kinship language, starting with linguistic anthropology. He explains two formal analytic definitional systems of kinship terms: the semantic (distinctions between kin categories, i.e. father vs mother) and pragmatic (interrelations between referents of kin terms, i.e. ‘nephew’ = ‘child of a sibling’). Chapter 12, Cultural semiotics, by Peeter Torop deals with the field of ‘semiotics of culture’, which may refer either to methodological instrument, to a whole array of methods or to a sub-discipline of general semiotics. In this last respect, it investigates cultures as a form of human symbolic activity, as well as a system of cultural languages (i.e. sign systems). Language, as “the preserver of the culture’s collective experience and the reflector of its creativity” represents an essential component of cultural semiotics, being a major sign system. Nigel Armstrong, in Chapter 13, Culture and translation, tackles the interrelation between language, culture, and translation, with an emphasis on the complexities entailed by translation of culturally laden aspects. In his opinion, culture has a double-sided dimension: the anthropological sense (referring to practices and traditions which characterise a community) and a narrower sense, related to artistic endeavours. However, both sides of culture permeate language at all levels. Chapter 14, Language, culture, and identity, by Sandra Schecter tackles several approaches to research on language, culture, and identity: social anthropological (the limits at play in the social construction of differences between various groups of people), sociocultural (the interplay between an individual’s various identities, which can be both externally and internally construed, in sociocultural contexts), participatory-relational (the manner in which individuals create their social–linguistic identities). Patrick McConvell, in Chapter 15, Language and culture history: the contribution of linguistic prehistory reviews research in this field where historical linguistic evidence is exploited in the reconstruction and understanding of prehistoric cultures. He makes an account of research in linguistic prehistory, with a focus on proto- and early Indo-European cultures, on several North American language families, on Africa, Australian, and Austronesian Aboriginal languages. McConvell also underlines the importance of interdisciplinary research in this area, which greatly benefits from studies in other disciplines, such as archaeology, palaeobiology, or biological genetics. Part four starts with Ning Yu’s Chapter 16, Embodiment, culture, and language, which gives an account of theory and research on the interplay between language, culture, and body, as seen from the standpoint of Cultural Linguistics. Yu presents a survey of embodiment (in embodied cognition research) from a multidisciplinary perspective, starting with the rather universalistic Conceptual Metaphor Theory. On the other hand, Cultural Linguistics has concentrated on the role played by culture in shaping embodied language, as various cultures conceptualise body and bodily experience in different ways. Chapter 17, Culture and language processing, by Crystal Robinson and Jeanette Altarriba deals with research in the field of how culture influence language processing, in particular in the case of bilingualism and emotion, alongside language and memory. Clearly, the linguistic and cultural character of each individual’s background has to be considered as a variable in research on cognition and cognitive processing. Frank Polzenhagen and Xiaoyan Xia, in Chapter 18, Language, culture, and prototypicality bring forth a survey of prototypicality across different disciplines, including cognitive linguistics and cognitive psychology. According to them, linguistic prototypes play a critical part in social (re-)cognition, as they are socially diagnostic and function as linguistic identity markers. Moreover, individuals may develop ‘culturally blended concepts’ as a result of exposure to several systems of conceptual categorisation, especially in the case of L2 learning (language-contact or culture-contact situations). In Chapter 19, Colour language, thought, and culture, Don Dedrick investigates the issue of the colour words in different languages and how these influence cognition, a question that has been addressed by researchers from various disciplines, such as anthropology, linguistics, cognitive psychology, or neuroscience. He cannot but observe the constant debate in this respect, and he argues that it is indeed difficult to reach consensus, as colour language occasionally reveals effects of language on thought and, at other times, it is impervious to such effects. Chapter 20, Language, culture, and spatial cognition, by Penelope Brown concentrates on conceptualisations of space, providing a framework for thinking about and referring to objects and events, along with more abstract notions such as time, number, or kinship. She lists three frames of reference used by languages in order to refer to spatial relations, i.e. a) an ‘absolute’ coordinate system, like north, south, east, west; b) a ‘relative’ coordinate system envisaged from the body’s standpoint; and c) an intrinsic, object-centred coordinate system. Chris Sinha and Enrique Bernárdez focus on, in Chapter 21, Space, time, and space–time: metaphors, maps, and fusions, research on linguistic and cultural concepts of time and space, starting with the seminal Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), which they denounce for failing to situate space–time mapping within the broader patterns of culture and world perspective. Sinha and Bernárdez further argue that although it is possible in all cultures for individuals to experience and discuss about events in terms of their duration and succession, the specific words and concepts they use to refer to temporal landmarks temporal and duration are most of the time language and culture specific. Chapter 22, Culture and language development, by Laura Sterponi and Paul Lai provides an account of research on the interplay between culture and language acquisition. They refer to two widely accepted perspectives in this respect: a developmental mechanism inherent in human beings and a set of particular social contexts in which children are ‘initiated’ into the cultural meaning systems. Both perspectives define culture as “both related to the psychological make-up of the individual and to the socio-historical contexts in which s/he is born and develops”. Anna Wierzbicka presents, in Chapter 23, Language and cultural scripts discusses representations of cultural norms which are encoded in language. She contends that the system of meaning interpretation developed by herself and her colleagues, i.e. Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM), may easily be used to capture and convey cultural scripts. Through NSM cross-cultural experiences can be captured in a thorough manner by using a reduced number of conceptual primes which seem to exist in all languages. Chapter 24, Culture and emotional language, by Jean-Marc Dewaele brings forth the issue of the relationship between language, culture, and emotion, which has been researched by cultural and cognitive psychologists and applied linguists alike, although with some differences in focus. He considers that within this context, it is important to see differences between emotion contexts in bilinguals, since these may lead to different perceptions of the self. He infers that generally, culture revolves around the experience and communication of emotions, conveyed through linguistic expression. The fifth part starts with Chapter 25, Language and culture in sociolinguistics, by Meredith Marra, who underlines that culture is a central concept in Interactional Sociolinguistics, where language is considered as social interaction. In linguistic interaction, culture, and especially cultural differences are deemed as a cause of potential miscommunication. Mara also remarks that the paradigm change in sociolinguistics, from Interactional Sociolinguistics to social constructionism reshaped ‘culture’ into a more dynamic as well as less rigid concept. Claudia Strauss’ Chapter 26, Language and culture in cognitive anthropology deals with the relationship between human society and human thought/thinking. The author contends that cognitive anthropologists may be subdivided into two groups, i.e. ones that are concerned with the process of thinking (cognition-in-practice scholars), and the others focusing on the product of thinking or thoughts (concerned with shared cultural understandings). She goes on to explore how different approaches to cognitive anthropology have counted on units of language, i.e. lexical items and their meanings, along with larger chunks of discourse, as information, which may represent learned cultural schemata. Part VI starts with Chapter 27, Language and culture in second language learning, by Claire Kramsch, in which she makes a survey of the definition of ‘culture’ in foreign language learning and its evolution from a component of literature and the arts to a more comprehensive purport, that of culturally appropriate use of language, along with an appropriate use of sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic norms. According to her, in the postmodern era, communication is not only mere transmission of information, it represents construal and positioning of the self and of self-identity. Chapter 28, Writing across cultures: ‘culture’ in second language writing studies, by Dwight Atkinson focuses on the usefulness of culture in second-language writing (SLW). He reviews several approaches to the issue: contrastive rhetoric (dealing with the impact of first-language patterns of text organisation on writers in a second language), or even alternate notions, like‘ cosmopolitanism’, ‘critical multiculturalism’, and hybridity, as of late native culture is becoming irrelevant or at best far less significant. Ian Malcolm tackles, in Chapter 29, Language and culture in second dialect learning, the issue of ‘standard’ Englishes (e.g., Standard American English, Standard Australian English) versus minority ‘non-standard’ speakers of English. He deplores the fact that in US specialist literature, speaking the ‘non-standard’ variety of English was associated with cognitive, cultural, and linguistic insufficiency. He further refers to other specialists who have demonstrated that ‘non-standard’ varieties can be just as systematic and highly structured as the standard variety. Chapter 30, Language and culture in intercultural communication, by Hans-Georg Wolf gives an account of research in intercultural education, focusing on several paradigms, i.e. the dominant one, investigating successful functioning in intercultural encounters, the minor one, exploring intercultural understanding and the ‘deconstructionist, and or postmodernist’. He further examines different interpretations of the concepts associated with intercultural communication, including the functionalist school, the intercultural understanding approach and a third one, the most removed from culture, focusing on socio-political inequalities, fluidity, situationality, and negotiability. Andy Kirkpatrick’s Chapter 31, World Englishes and local cultures gives a synopsis of research paradigm from applied linguistics which investigates the development of Englishes around the world, through processes like indigenisation or nativisation of the language. Kirkpatrick discusses the ways in which new Englishes accommodate the culture of the very speech community which develops them, e.g. adopting lexical items to express to express culture-specific concepts. Speakers of new varieties could use pragmatic norms rooted in cultural values and norms of the specific new speech community which have not previously been associated with English. Moreover, they can use these new Englishes to write local literatures, often exploiting culturally preferred rhetorical norms. Part seven starts with Chapter 32, Cultural Linguistics, by Farzad Sharifian gives an account of the recent multidisciplinary research field of Cultural Linguistics, which explores the relationship between language and cultural cognition, particularly in the case of cultural conceptualisations. Sharifian also brings forth illustrations of how cultural conceptualisations may be linguistically encoded. The last chapter, A future agenda for research on language and culture, by Roslyn Frank provides an appraisal of Cultural Linguistics as a prospective path for research in the field of language and culture. She states that ‘Cultural Linguistics could potentially create a paradigm that “successfully melds together complementary approaches, e.g., viewing language as ‘a complex adaptive system’ and bringing to bear upon it concepts drawn from cognitive science such as ‘distributed cognition’ and ‘multi-agent dynamic systems theory’.” She further asserts that Cultural Linguistics has the potential to function as “a bridge that brings together researchers from a variety of fields, allowing them to focus on problems of mutual concern from a new perspective” and most likely unveil new issues (as well as solutions) which have not been evident so far. In conclusion, the Handbook will most certainly serve as clear and coherent guidelines for scholarly thinking and further research on language and culture, and also open up new investigative vistas in each of the areas tackled.

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07–305Allen, Shanley E. M. (Boston U, USA), Martha Cregg & Diane Pesco, The effect of majority language exposure on minority language skills: The case of Inuktitut. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.5 (2006), 578–596.07–306Barkhuizen, Gary (U Auckland, New Zealand), Ute Knoch & Donna Starks, Language practices, preferences and policies: Contrasting views of Pakeha, Maori, Pasifika and Asian students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (Multilingual Matters) 27.5 (2006), 375–391.07–307Bedore, Lisa M. (U Texas at Austin, USA; lbedore@mail.utexas.edu), Christine E. Fiestas, Elizabeth D. Pena & Vanessa J. Nagy, Cross-language comparisons of maze use in Spanish and English in functionally monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.3 (2006), 249–261.07–308Boumans, Louis (Radboud U, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; l.boumans@let.ru.nl), The attributive possessive in Moroccan Arabic spoken by young bilinguals in the Netherlands and their peers in Morocco. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.3 (2006), 233–247.07–309de Klerk, Vivian (Rhodes U, Grahamstown, South Africa), Codeswitching, borrowing and mixing in a corpus of Xhosa English. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.5 (2006), 597–614.07–310Dorian, Nancy C., Negative borrowing in an indigenous-language shift to the dominant national language. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.5 (2006), 557–577.07–311Fflur Huws, Catrın, Adran y Gyfraıth & Adeılad Hugh Owen (Ceredigion, Wales, UK; trh@aber.ac.uk), The Welsh language act 1993: A measure of success. Language Policy (Springer) 5.2 (2006), 141–160.07–312Finkbeiner, Matthew (Harvard U, USA), Jorge Almeida, Niels Janssen & Alfonso Caramazza, Lexical selection in bilingual speech production does not involve language suppression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (American Psychological Association) 32.5 (2006), 1075–1089.07–313Hamel, Rainer Enrique (U Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico) & Norbert Francis, The teaching of Spanish as a second language in an indigenous bilingual intercultural curriculum. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Multilingual Matters) 19.2 (2006), 171–188.07–314Ho, Debbie G. E. (U Brunei, Brunei), ‘I'm not west. I'm not east. So how leh?’English Today (Cambridge University Press) 22.3 (2006), 17–24.07–315Hohenstein, Jill (King's College London, UK; jill.hohenstein@kcl.ac.uk), Ann Eisenberg & Letitia Naigles, Is he floating across or crossing afloat? Cross-influence of L1 and L2 in Spanish–English bilingual adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.3 (2006), 263–280.07–316Huguet, Ángel (U Lleida, Spain), Attitudes and motivation versus language achievement in cross-linguistic settings. What is cause and what effect?Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (Multilingual Matters) 27.5 (2006), 413–429.07–317Lee, Borim (Wonkwang U, Korea; brlee@wonkwang.ac.kr), Susan G. Guion & Tetsuo Harada, Acoustic analysis of the production of unstressed English vowels by early and late Korean and Japanese bilinguals. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge University Press) 28.3 (2006), 487–513.07–318McCarty, Teresa L. (Arizona State U, Phoenix, USA), Mary Eunice Romero-Little & Ofelia Zepeda, Native American youth discourses on language shift and retention: Ideological cross-currents and their implications for language planning. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.5 (2006), 659–677.07–319Mills, Kathy A. (Christian Heritage College, Australia), ‘Mr travelling-at-will Ted Doyle’: Discourses in a multiliteracies classroom. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy (Australian Literacy Educators' Association) 29.2 (2006), 132–149.07–320Ngai, Phyllis Bo-Yuen (U Montana, USA), Grassroots suggestions for linking native-language learning, Native American studies, and mainstream education in reservation schools with mixed Indian and white student populations. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Multilingual Matters) 19.2 (2006), 220–236.07–321Pika, Simone (U St Andrews, Scotland; sp60@st-andrews.ac.uk), Elena Nicoladis & Paula F. Marentette, A cross-cultural study on the use of gestures: Evidence for cross-linguistic transfer?Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.3 (2006), 319–327.07–322Portelli, John (U Malta), Language: An important signifier of masculinity in a bilingual context. Gender and Education (Routledge/Taylor & Francis) 18.4 (2006), 413–430.07–323Prevost, Philippe (Laval U, Canada; philippe.prevost@lli.ulaval.ca), The phenomenon of object omission in child L2 French. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.3 (2006), 281–297.07–324Reagan, Tımothy (U Witwatersrand, South Africa; reagant@hse.wits.ac.za), Claıre Penn & Dale Ogılvy, From policy to practice: Sign language developments in post-apartheid South Africa. Language Policy (Springer) 5.2 (2006), 187–208.07–325Reichelt, Melinda (U Toledo, USA), English in a multilingual Spain. English Today (Cambridge University Press) 22.3 (2006), 3–9.07–326Salamoura, Angeliki (U Cambridge, UK; as350@cam.ac.uk) & John N. Williams, Lexical activation of cross-language syntactic priming. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.3 (2006), 309–318.07–327Sánchez, Liliana (Rutgers U, New Brunswick, USA), Kechwa and Spanish bilingual grammars: Testing hypotheses on functional interference and convergence. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.5 (2006), 535–556.07–328Schwartz, Ana I. (U Texas at El Paso, USA; aischwartz@utep.edu) & Judith F. Kroll, Bilingual lexical activation in sentence context. Journal of Memory and Language (Elsevier) 55.2 (2006), 197–212.07–329Sııner, Maarja (Copenhagen, Denmark; maarja_siiner@hotmail.com), Planning language practice: A sociolinguistic analysis of language policy in post-communist Estonia. Language Policy (Springer) 5.2 (2006), 161–186.07–330Smits, Erica (Antwerp U, Belgium; erica.smits@ua.ac.be), Heike Martensen, Ton Dijkstra & Dominiek Sandra, Naming interlingual hom*ographs: Variable competition and the role of the decision system. 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06–536Abd-el-Jawad, Hassan R. (Sultan Qaboos U, Oman), Why do minority languages persist? The case of Circassian in Jordan. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.1 (2006), 51–74.06–537Athanasopoulos, Panos (U Essex, UK; pathan@essex.ac.uk), Effects of the grammatical representation of number on cognition in bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.1 (2006), 89–96.06–538Bialystok, Ellen (York U, Canada; ellenb@yorku.ca), Catherine Mcbride-Chang & Gigi Luk, Bilingualism, language proficiency and learning to read in two writing systems. Journal of Educational Psychology (American Psychological Association) 97.4 (2005), 580–590.06–539Broersma, Mirjam (Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Netherlands; mirjam.broersma@mpi.nl) & Kees de Bot, Triggered codeswitching: A corpus-based evaluation of the original triggering hypothesis and a new alternative. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.1 (2006), 1–13.06–540Cahnmann, Melisa (U Georgia, Athens, USA; cahnmann@uga.edu) & Manka M. Varghese, Critical advocacy and bilingual education in the United States. Linguistics and Education (Elsevier) 16.1 (2005), 59–73.06–541Creese, Angela (U Birmingham, UK), Arvind Bhatt, Nirmala Bhojani & Peter Martin, Multicultural, heritage and learner identities in complementary schools. Language and Education (Multilingual Matters) 20.1 (2006), 23–4306–542Deuchar, Margaret (U Wales, Bangor, UK; m.deuchar@bangor.ac.uk), Congruence and Welsh–English code-switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 8.3 (2005), 255–269.06–543Dong, Yanping (Guangdong U of Foreign Studies, China; ypdong@mail.gdufs.edu.cn), Shichun Gui & Brian Macwhinney, Shared and separate meanings in the bilingual mental lexicon. 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Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 8.3 (2005), 207–219.06–555Palozzi, Vincent J. (Indiana U, USA; vpalozzi@indiana.edu), Assessing voter attitude toward language policy issues in the United States. Language Policy (Springer) 5.1 (2006), 15–39.06–556Petrovic, John E. (U Alabama, USA; Petrovic@bamaed.ua.edu), The conservative restoration and neoliberal defenses of bilingual education. Language Policy (Springer) 4.4 (2005), 395–416.06–557Robertson, Leena Helavaara (Middlesex U, UK), Learning to read ‘properly’ by moving between parallel literacy classes. Language and Education (Multilingual Matters) 20.1 (2006), 44–61.06–558Reyes, Iliana (U Arizona, USA; ireyes@email.arizona.edu) & Arturo E. Hernández, Sentence interpretation strategies in emergent bilingual children and adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge University Press) 9.1 (2006), 51–69.06–559Rolla San Francisco, Andrea, María Carlo, Diane August & Catherine E. 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07–469Dicker Hostos, Susan J. (City U New York, USA), Dominican Americans in Washington Heights, New York: Language and culture in a transnational community. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.6 (2006), 713–727.07–470Fitts, Shanan (California State U, USA), Reconstructing the status quo: Linguistic interaction in a dual-language school. Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 337–365.07–471Hall, Anne-Marie (U Arizona, USA), Keeping La Llorona alive in the shadow of Cortés: What an examination of literacy in two Mexican schools can teach. Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 385–406.07–472Han Chung, Haesook (Defense Language Institute, USA), Code switching as a communicative strategy: A case study of Korean–English bilinguals. Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 293–307.07–473Hilmarsson-Dunn, A. M. (U Southampton, UK; amhd@soton.ac.uk), Protectionist language policies in the face of the forces of English: The case of Iceland. Language Policy (Springer) 5.3 (2006), 295–314.07–474Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle (U Bristol, UK; g.hogan-brun@bristol.ac.uk), At the interface of language ideology and practice: The public discourse surrounding the 2004 education reform in Latvia. Language Policy (Springer) 5.3 (2006), 315–335.07–475Jiménez, Terese C. (Loyola Marymount U, USA), , Alexis L. Filippini & Michael M. Gerber, Shared reading within Latino families: An analysis of reading interactions and language use. Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 431–452.07–476King, Kendall & Lyn Fogle (Georgetown U, USA), Bilingual parenting as good parenting: Parents' perspectives on family language policy for additive bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.6 (2006), 695–712.07–477Lee, Borim (Wonkwang U, Korea; brlee@wonkwang.ac.kr), Susan G. Guion & Tetsuo Harada, Acoustic analysis of the production of unstressed English vowels by early and late Korean and Japanese bilinguals. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge University Press) 28.3 (2006), 487–513.07–478Mar-Molinero, Clare & Patrick Stevenson (Centre for Transnational Studies, U Southampton, UK; cmm@soton.ac.uk), Breaching the peace: Struggles around multilingualism in Switzerland. Language Policy (Springer) 5.3 (2006), 239–245.07–479Mills, Kathy A. (Christian Heritage College, Australia), ‘Mr travelling-at-will Ted Doyle': Discourses in a multiliteracies classroom. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy (Australian Literacy Educators' Association) 29.2 (2006), 132–149.07–480Pagett, Linda (U Plymouth, UK; l.pagett@plymouth.ac.uk), Mum and Dad prefer me to speak Bengali at home: Code switching and parallel speech in a primary school setting. Literacy (Blackwell) 40.3 (2006), 137–14507–481Ransdell, Sarah (Nova Southeastern U, Ft Lauderdale, FL, USA), Marie-Laure Barbier & Toomas Niit, Metacognitions about language skill and working memory among monolingual and bilingual college students: When does multilingualism matter?International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (Multilingual Matters) 9.6 (2006), 728–741.07–482Souto-Manning, Mariana (U Georgia, USA), A critical look at bilingualism discourse in public schools: Autoethnographic reflections of a vulnerable observer. Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 559–577.07–483Worthy, Jo & Alejandra Rodríguez-Galindo (U Texas, USA), ‘Mi hija vale dos personas': Latino immigrant parents’ perspectives about their children's bilingualism. Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 579–601.

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07–398Ammar, Ahlem (U de Montréal, Canada; ahlem.ammar@umontreal.ca) & Nina Spada, One size fits all? Recasts, prompts, and L2 learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge University Press) 28.4 (2006), 543–574.07–399August, Gail (Hostos Community College, USA), So, what's behind adult English second language reading?Bilingual Research Journal (National Association for Bilingual Education) 30.2 (2006), 245–264.07–400Beasley, Robert (Franklin College, USA; rbeasley@franklincollege.edu), Yuangshan Chuang& Chao-chih Liao, Determinants and effects of English language immersion in Taiwanese EFL learners engaged in online music study. The Reading Matrix (Readingmatrix.com) 6.3 (2006), 330–339.07–401Brown, Jill (Monash U, Australia), Jenny Miller & Jane Mitchell, Interrupted schooling and the acquisition of literacy: Experiences of Sudanese refugees in Victorian secondary schools. 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IntroductionNew digital technologies hold promise for equalising access to information and communication for the Deaf community. SMS technology, for example, has helped to equalise deaf peoples’ access to information and made it easier to communicate with both deaf and hearing people (Tane Akamatsu et al.; Power and Power; Power, Power, and Horstmanshof; Valentine and Skelton, "Changing", "Umbilical"; Harper). A wealth of anecdotal evidence and some recent academic work suggests that new media technology is also reshaping deaf peoples’ sense of local and global community (Breivik "Deaf"; Breivik, Deaf; Brueggeman). One focus of research on new media technologies has been on technologies used for point to point communication, including communication (and interpretation) via video (Tane Akamatsu et al.; Power and Power; Power, Power, and Horstmanshof). Another has been the use of multimedia technologies in formal educational setting for pedagogical purposes, particularly English language literacy (e.g. Marshall Gentry et al.; Tane Akamatsu et al.; Vogel et al.). An emphasis on the role of multimedia in deaf education is understandable, considering the on-going highly politicised contest over whether to educate young deaf people in a bilingual environment using a signed language (Swanwick & Gregory). However, the increasing significance of social and participatory media in the leisure time of Westerners suggests that such uses of Web 2.0 are also worth exploring. There have begun to be some academic accounts of the enthusiastic adoption of vlogging by sign language users (e.g. Leigh; Cavander and Ladner) and this paper seeks to add to this important work. Web 2.0 has been defined by its ability to, in Denise Woods’ word, “harness collective intelligence” (19.2) by providing opportunities for users to make, adapt, “mash up” and share text, photos and video. As well as its well-documented participatory possibilities (Bruns), its re-emphasis on visual (as opposed to textual) communication is of particular interest for Deaf communities. It has been suggested that deaf people are a ‘visual variety of the human race’ (Bahan), and the visually rich presents new opportunities for visually rich forms of communication, most importantly via signed languages. The central importance of signed languages for Deaf identity suggests that the visual aspects of interactive multimedia might offer possibilities of maintenance, enhancement and shifts in those identities (Hyde, Power and Lloyd). At the same time, the visual aspects of the Web 2.0 are often audio-visual, such that the increasingly rich resources of the net offer potential barriers as well as routes to inclusion and community (see Woods; Ellis; Cavander and Ladner). In particular, lack of captioning or use of Auslan in video resources emerges as a key limit to the accessibility of the visual Web to deaf users (Cahill and Hollier). In this paper we ask to what extent contemporary digital media might create moments of permeability in what Krentz has called “the hearing line, that invisible boundary separating deaf and hearing people”( 2)”. To provide tentative answers to these questions, this paper will explore the use of participatory digital media by a group of young Deaf people taking part in a small-scale digital moviemaking project in Sydney in 2009. The ProjectAs a starting point, the interdisciplinary research team conducted a video-making course for young deaf sign language users within the Department of Media, Music and Cultural Studies at Macquarie University. The research team was comprised of one deaf and four hearing researchers, with expertise in media and cultural studies, information technology, sign language linguistics/ deaf studies, and signed language interpreting. The course was advertised through the newsletter of partner organization the NSW Deaf Society, via a Sydney bilingual deaf school and through the dense electronic networks of Australian deaf people. The course attracted fourteen participants from NSW, Western Australia and Queensland ranging in age from 10 to 18. Twelve of the participants were male, and two female. While there was no aspiration to gather a representative group of young people, it is worth noting there was some diversity within the group: for example, one participant was a wheelchair user while another had in recent years moved to Sydney from Africa and had learned Auslan relatively recently. Students were taught a variety of storytelling techniques and video-making skills, and set loose in groups to devise, shoot and edit a number of short films. The results were shared amongst the class, posted on a private YouTube channel and made into a DVD which was distributed to participants.The classes were largely taught in Auslan by a deaf teacher, although two sessions were taught by (non-deaf) members of Macquarie faculty, including an AFI award winning director. Those sessions were interpreted into Auslan by a sign language interpreter. Participants were then allowed free creative time to shoot video in locations of their choice on campus, or to edit their footage in the computer lab. Formal teaching sessions lasted half of each day – in the afternoons, participants were free to use the facilities or participate in a range of structured activities. Participants were also interviewed in groups, and individually, and their participation in the project was observed by researchers. Our research interest was in what deaf young people would choose to do with Web 2.0 technologies, and most particularly the visually rich elements of participatory and social media, in a relatively unstructured environment. Importantly, our focus was not on evaluating the effectiveness of multimedia for teaching deaf young people, or the level of literacy deployed by deaf young people in using the applications. Rather we were interested to discover the kinds of stories participants chose to tell, the ways they used Web 2.0 applications and the modalities of communication they chose to use. Given that Auslan was the language of instruction of the course, would participants draw on the tradition of deaf jokes and storytelling and narrate stories to camera in Auslan? Would they use the format of the “mash-up”, drawing on found footage or photographs? Would they make more filmic movies using Auslan dialogue? How would they use captions and text in their movies: as subtitles for Auslan dialogue? As an alternative to signing? Or not at all? Our observations from the project point to the great significance of the visual dimensions of Web 2.0 for the deaf young people who participated in the project. Initially, this was evident in the kind of movies students chose to make. Only one group – three young people in their late teens which included both of the young women in the class - chose to make a dialogue heavy movie, a spoof of Charlie’s Angels, entitled Deaf Angels. This movie included long scenes of the Angels using Auslan to chat together, receiving instruction from “Charlie” in sign language via videophone and recruiting “extras”, again using Auslan, to sign a petition for Auslan to be made an official Australian language. In follow up interviews, one of the students involved in making this film commented “my clip is about making a political statement, while the other [students in the class] made theirs just for fun”. The next group of (three) films, all with the involvement of the youngest class member, included signed storytelling of a sort readily recognisable from signed videos on-line: direct address to camera, with the teller narrating but also taking on the roles of characters and presenting their dialogue directly via the sign language convention of “role shift” - also referred to as constructed action and constructed dialogue (Metzger). One of these movies was an interesting hybrid. The first half of the four minute film had two young actors staging a hold-up at a vending machine, with a subsequent chase and fight scene. Like most of the films made by participants in the class, it included only one line of signed dialogue, with the rest of the narrative told visually through action. However, at the end of the action sequence, with the victim safely dead, the narrative was then retold by one of the performers within a signed story, using conventions typically observed in signed storytelling - such as role shift, characterisation and spatial mapping (Mather & Winston; Rayman; Wilson).The remaining films similarly drew on action and horror genres with copious use of chase and fight scenes and melodramatic and sometimes quite beautiful climactic death tableaux. The movies included a story about revenging the death of a brother; a story about escaping from jail; a short story about a hippo eating a vet; a similar short comprised of stills showing a sequence of executions in the computer lab; and a ghost story. Notably, most of these movies contained very little dialogue – with only one or two lines of signed dialogue in each four to five minute video (with the exception of the gun handshape used in context to represent the object liberally throughout most films). The kinds of movies made by this limited group of people on this one occasion are suggestive. While participants drew on a number of genres and communication strategies in their film making, the researchers were surprised at how few of the movies drew on traditions of signed storytelling or jokes– particularly since the course was targeted at deaf sign language users and promoted as presented in Auslan. Consequently, our group of students were largely drawn from the small number of deaf schools in which Auslan is the main language of instruction – an exceptional circ*mstance in an Australian setting in which most deaf young people attend mainstream schools (Byrnes et al.; Power and Hyde). Looking across the Hearing LineWe can make sense of the creative choices made by the participants in the course in a number of ways. Although methods of captioning were briefly introduced during the course, iMovie (the package which participants were using) has limited captioning functionality. Indeed, one student, who was involved in making the only clip to include captioning which contextualised the narrative, commented in follow-up interviews that he would have liked more information about captioning. It’s also possible that the compressed nature of the course prevented participants from undertaking the time-consuming task of scripting and entering captions. As well as being the most fun approach to the projects, the use of visual story telling was probably the easiest. This was perhaps exacerbated by the lack of emphasis on scriptwriting (outside of structural elements and broad narrative sweeps) in the course. Greater emphasis on that aspect of film-making would have given participants a stronger foundational literacy for caption-based projectsDespite these qualifications, both the movies made by students and our observations suggest the significance of a shared visual culture in the use of the Web by these particular young people. During an afternoon when many of the students were away swimming, one student stayed in the lab to use the computers. Rather than working on a video project, he spent time trawling through YouTube for clips purporting to show ghost sightings and other paranormal phenomena. He drew these clips to the attention of one of the research team who was present in the lab, prompting a discussion about the believability of the ghosts and supernatural apparitions in the clips. While some of the clips included (uncaptioned) off-screen dialogue and commentary, this didn’t seem to be a barrier to this student’s enjoyment. Like many other sub-genres of YouTube clips – pranks, pratfalls, cute or alarmingly dangerous incidents involving children and animals – these supernatural videos as a genre rely very little on commentary or dialogue for their meaning – just as with the action films that other students drew on so heavily in their movie making. In an E-Tech paper entitled "The Cute Cat Theory of Digital Activism", Ethan Zuckerman suggests that “web 1.0 was invented to allow physicists to share research papers and web 2.0 was created to allow people to share pictures of cute cats”. This comment points out both the Web 2.0’s vast repository of entertaining material in the ‘funny video’genre which is visually based, dialogue free, entertaining material accessible to a wide range of people, including deaf sign language users. In the realm of leisure, at least, the visually rich resources of Web 2.0’s ubiquitous images and video materials may be creating a shared culture in which the line between hearing and deaf people’s entertainment activities is less clear than it may have been in the past. The ironic tone of Zuckerman’s observation, however, alerts us to the limits of a reliance on language-free materials as a route to accessibility. The kinds of videos that the participants in the course chose to make speaks to the limitations as well as resources offered by the visual Web. There is still a limited range of captioned material on You Tube. In interviews, both young people and their teachers emphasised the central importance of access to captioned video on-line, with the young people we interviewed strongly favouring captioned video over the inclusion on-screen of simultaneous signed interpretations of text. One participant who was a regular user of a range of on-line social networking commented that if she really liked the look of a particular movie which was uncaptioned, she would sometimes contact its maker and ask them to add captions to it. Interestingly, two student participants emphasised in interviews that signed video should also include captions so hearing people could have access to signed narratives. These students seemed to be drawing on ideas about “reverse discrimination”, but their concern reflected the approach of many of the student movies - using shared visual conventions that made their movies available to the widest possible audience. All the students were anxious that hearing people could understand their work, perhaps a consequence of the course’s location in the University as an overwhelmingly hearing environment. In this emphasis on captioning rather than sign as a route to making media accessible, we may be seeing a consequence of the emphasis Krentz describes as ubiquitous in deaf education “the desire to make the differences between deaf and hearing people recede” (16). Krentz suggests that his concept of the ‘hearing line’ “must be perpetually retested and re-examined. It reveals complex and shifting relationships between physical difference, cultural fabrication and identity” (7). The students’ movies and attitudes emphasised the reality of that complexity. Our research project explored how some young Deaf people attempted to create stories capable of crossing categories of deafness and ‘hearing-ness’… unstable (like other identity categories) while others constructed narratives that affirmed Deaf Culture or drew on the Deaf storytelling traditions. This is of particular interest in the Web 2.0 environment, given that its technologies are often lauded as having the politics of participation. The example of the Deaf Community asks reasonable questions about the validity of those claims, and it’s hard to escape the conclusion that there is still less than appropriate access and that some users are more equal than others.How do young people handle the continuing lack of material available to the on the Web? The answer repeatedly offered by our young male interviewees was ‘I can’t be bothered’. As distinct from “I can’t understand” or “I won’t go there” this answer, represented a disengagement from demands to identify your literacy levels, reveal your preferred means of communication; to rehearse arguments about questions of access or expose attempts to struggle to make sense of texts that fail to employ readily accessible means of communicating. Neither an admission of failure or a demand for change, CAN’T-BE-BOTHERED in this context offers a cool way out of an accessibility impasse. This easily-dismissed comment in interviews was confirmed in a whole-group discussions, when students came to a consensus that if when searching for video resources on the Net they found video that included neither signing nor captions, they would move on to find other more accessible resources. Even here, though, the ground continues to shift. YouTube recently announced that it was making its auto-captioning feature open to everybody - a machine generated system that whilst not perfect does attempt to make all YouTube videos accessible to deaf people. (Bertolucci).The importance of captioning of non-signed video is thrown into further significance by our observation from the course of the use of YouTube as a search engine by the participants. Many of the students when asked to research information on the Web bypassed text-based search engines and used the more visual results presented on YouTube directly. In research on deaf adolescents’ search strategies on the Internet, Smith points to the promise of graphical interfaces for deaf young people as a strategy for overcoming the English literacy difficulties experienced by many deaf young people (527). In the years since Smith’s research was undertaken, the graphical and audiovisual resources available on the Web have exploded and users are increasingly turning to these resources in their searches, providing new possibilities for Deaf users (see for instance Schonfeld; Fajardo et al.). Preliminary ConclusionsA number of recent writers have pointed out the ways that the internet has made everyday communication with government services, businesses, workmates and friends immeasurably easier for deaf people (Power, Power and Horstmanshof; Keating and Mirus; Valentine and Skelton, "Changing", "Umbilical"). The ready availability of information in a textual and graphical form on the Web, and ready access to direct contact with others on the move via SMS, has worked against what has been described as deaf peoples’ “information deprivation”, while everyday tasks – booking tickets, for example – are no longer a struggle to communicate face-to-face with hearing people (Valentine and Skelton, "Changing"; Bakken 169-70).The impacts of new technologies should not be seen in simple terms, however. Valentine and Skelton summarise: “the Internet is not producing either just positive or just negative outcomes for D/deaf people but rather is generating a complex set of paradoxical effects for different users” (Valentine and Skelton, "Umbilical" 12). They note, for example, that the ability, via text-based on-line social media to interact with other people on-line regardless of geographic location, hearing status or facility with sign language has been highly valued by some of their deaf respondents. They comment, however, that the fact that many deaf people, using the Internet, can “pass” minimises the need for hearing people in a phonocentric society to be aware of the diversity of ways communication can take place. They note, for example, that “few mainstream Websites demonstrate awareness of D/deaf peoples’ information and communication needs/preferences (eg. by incorporating sign language video clips)” ("Changing" 11). As such, many deaf people have an enhanced ability to interact with a range of others, but in a mode favoured by the dominant culture, a culture which is thus unchallenged by exposure to alternative strategies of communication. Our research, preliminary as it is, suggests a somewhat different take on these complex questions. 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International Journal of Educational Research (Abingdon, UK), 37 (2002), 323–41.04–173Ghaith, Ghazi (American U. of Beirut, Lebanon). Effects of the Learning Together model of co-operative learning on English as a Foreign Language reading achievement, academic self-esteem, and feelings of social alienation. Bilingual Research Journal (Arizona, USA), 27, 3 (2003), 451–74.04–174Hansen, Jette G. (U. of Arizona, USA; Email: jhansen@u.arizona.edu). Developmental sequences in the acquisition of English L2 syllable codas – a preliminary study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 26, 1 (2004), 85–124.04–175Havranek, Gertraud (U. of Klagenfurt, Austria; Email: gertraud.havranek@uni-klu.ac.at). When is corrective feedback most likely to succeed?International Journal of Educational Research (Abingdon, UK), 37 (2002), 255–70.04–176Hegelheimer, Volker (Iowa State U., USA; Email: volkerh@iastate.edu) and Tower, Dustin. Using CALL in the classroom: Analyzing student interactions in an authentic classroom. System (Oxford, UK), 32, 2 (2004), 185–205.04–177Hester, Elizabeth (Wichita State U., USA; Email: hestere@newpaltz.edu) and Hodson, Barbara Williams. The role of phonological representation in decoding skills of young readers. Child Language Teaching and Therapy (London, UK), 20, 2 (2004), 115–33.04–178Kim, Haeyoung (Catholic U. of Korea, South Korea; Email: haeyoungkim@catholic.ac.kr). Effects of free reading on vocabulary competence in the first and second language. English Teaching (Anseonggun South Korea), 58, 4 (2003), 273–92.04–179Klapper, John and Rees, Jonathan (Birmingham U., UK; Email: j.i.rees@bham.ac.uk). Marks, get set, go: an evaluation of entry levels and progress rates on a university foreign language programme. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education (London, UK), 29, 1 (2004), 21–39.04–180Kuiken, Folkert (U. of Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Email: f.kuiken@uva.nl) and Vedder, Ineke. The effect of interaction in acquiring the grammar of a second language. International Journal of Educational Research (Abingdon, UK), 37 (2002), 343–58.04–181Letao, S. and Fletcher, J. (U. of Western Australia, Australia). Literacy outcomes for students with speech impairment: long-term follow-up. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders (Abingdon, UK), 39, 2 (2004), 245–56.04–182Lindberg, Inger (Göteborg U., Sweden; Email: inger.lundberg@svenska.gu.se). Second language awareness: for what and for whom?Language Awareness (Clevedon, UK), 12, 3&4 (2003), 157–71.04–183Lyster, Roy (McGill U., Canada; Email: roy.lyster@mcgill.ca). Negotiation in immersion teacher-student interaction. International Journal of Educational Research (Abingdon, UK), 37 (2002), 237–53.04–184Martino, W. Boys, masculinities and literacy: addressing the issues. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy (Adelaide, Australia), 26, 3 (2003), 9–27.04–185McDonough, Kim (U. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA; Email: mcdonokr@uiuc.edu). Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context. System (Oxford, UK), 32, 2 (2004), 207–24.04–186Meara, P. (U. of Wales Swansea, UK). Modelling vocabulary loss. Applied Linguistics (Oxford, UK), 25, 2 (2004), 137–55.04–187Mori, Reiko (f*ckuoka Prefectural U., Japan; Email: mori@f*ckuoka-pu.ac.jp). Staying-in-English rule revisited. System (Oxford, UK), 32, 2 (2004), 225–36.04–188Roche, Jörg and Scheller, Julija (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany). Zur Effizienz von Grammatikanimationen beim Spracherwerb [The efficiency of grammar animations in the process of learning foreign languages]. Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, Online Journal, 9, 1 (2004), 15 pp.04–189Saito, H. & Eisenstein Ebsworth, M. (Queens College, City U. of New York, USA). Seeing English language teaching and learning through the eyes of Japanese EFL and ESL students. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 37, 1 (2004), 111–24.04–190Schwarzer, D. (U. of Texas at Austin, USA). Student and teacher strategies for communicating through dialogue journals in Hebrew: a teacher research project. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 37, 1 (2004), 77–84.04–191Simard, D. & Wong, W. (U. du Québec, Montréal). Language awareness and its multiple possibilities for the L2 classroom. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 37, 1 (2004), 96–110.04–192Soh, Yoon-Hee (Pochon CHA University, South Korea; Email: yhsoh@cha.ac.kr). Students' preparation, participation and attitudes toward an oral class presentation. English Teaching (Anseonggun, South Korea), 58, 3 (2003), 69–94.04–193Soler Alcón, Eva (U. Jaume I, Spain; Email: alcon@fil.uji.es). Relationship between teacher-led versus learners' interaction and the development of pragmatics in the EFL classroom. International Journal of Educational Research (Abingdon, UK), 37 (2002), 359–77.04–194Swain, Merrill and Lapkin, Sharon (U. of Toronto, Canada; Email: mswain@oise.utoronto.ca). Talking it through: two French immersion learners' response to reformulation. International Journal of Educational Research (Abingdon, UK), 37 (2002), 285–304.04–195Tulasiewicz, W. & Adams, A. (U. of Cambridge, UK). Literacy, language awareness and the teaching of English. English in Australia (Norwood, Australia), 138 (2003), 81–85.04–196Vilaseca, Rosa Maria (Barcelona U., Spain; Email: rosavilaseca@ub.edu) and Del Rio, María-José. Language acquisition by children with Downs syndrome: a naturalistic approach to assisting language acquisition. Child Language Teaching and Therapy (London, UK), 20, 2 (2004), 163–80.04–197Young, Andrea and Helot, Christine (I.U.F.M. d'Alsace, France; Email: christine.helot@alsace.iufm.fr). Language awareness and/or language learning in French primary schools today. Language Awareness (Clevedon, UK), 12, 3&4 (2003), 234–46.

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03—285 Ahmed, Mehreen (U. of Queensland, Australia). A note on phrase structure analysis and design implication for ICALL. Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 15, 4 (2002), 423—33.03—286 Argaman, Osnat and Abu-Rabia, Salim (U. of Haifa, Israel). The influence of language anxiety on English reading and writing tasks among native Hebrew speakers. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK), 15, 2 (2002), 143—60.03—287 Bielinska, Monika (Schlesische Universität, Katowice, Poland). Zu Semantischen Aspekten der Wortkombinatorik. [On semantic aspects of word combination.] Glottodidactica (Poznań, Poland), 28 (2002), 19—27.03—288 Bonci, Angelica (Royal Holloway, U. of London, UK). Collocational restrictions in Italian as a second language: A case control study. Tuttitalia (Rugby, UK), 26 (2002), 3—14.03—289 Brown, Charles Grant (U. of Northern British Columbia, Canada; Email: brownc@unbc.ca). Inferring and maintaining the learner model. Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 15, 4 (2002), 343—55.03—290 Butler, Yuko Goto (U. of Pennsylvania, USA; Email: ybutler@gse.upenn.edu). Second language learners' theories on the use of English articles: An analysis of the metalinguistic knowledge used by Japanese students in acquiring the English article system. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 24, 3 (2002), 451—80.03—291 Carroll, Susanne E. (Universität Potsdam, Germany; Email: carroll@rz.uni-potsdam.de). Induction in a modular learner. Second Language Research (London, UK), 18, 3 (2002), 224—49.03—292 Chen, Liang, Tokuda, Naoyuki and Xiao, Dahai (Sunflare Company, Tokyo, Japan; Email: chen_1@sunflare.co.jp). A POST parser-based learner model for template-based ICALL for Japanese-English writing skills. Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 15, 4 (2002), 357—72.03—293 Di Biase, Bruno and Kawaguchi, Satomi (U. of Western Sydney, Australia; Email: B.DiBiase@uws.edu.au). Exploring the typological plausibility of Processability Theory: Language development in Italian second language and Japanese second language. Second Language Research (London, UK), 18, 3 (2002), 274—302.03—294 Dimroth, Christine (Max Planck Inst. for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Email: christine.dimroth@mpi.nl). Topics, assertions, and additive words: How L2 learners get from information structure to target-language syntax. Linguistics (Berlin, Germany), 40, 4 (2002), 891—923.03—295 Duffield, Nigel (McGill U., Canada), White, Lydia, Bruhn de Garavito, Joyce, Montrul, Silvina and Prévost, Philippe. cl*tic placement in L2 French: Evidence from sentence matching. Journal of Linguistics (Cambridge, UK), 38, 3 (2002), 487—525.03—296 Francis, Norbert (Northern Arizona U., USA; Email: norbert.francis@nau.edu). Literacy, second language learning, and the development of metalinguistic awareness: A study of bilingual children's perceptions of focus on form. Linguistics and Education (New York, USA), 13, 3 (2002), 373—404.03—297 Gamper, Johann (Free U. of Bozen, Italy; Email: judith.knapp@eurac.edu) and Knapp, Judith. A review of intelligent CALL systems. Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 15, 4 (2002), 329—42.03—298 Gavruseva, Elena (U. of Iowa, USA; Email: elena-gavruseva@uiowa.edu). Is there primacy of aspect in child L2 English? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge, UK), 5, 2 (2002), 109—30.03—299 Geeslin, Kimberly L. (Indiana U., USA; Email: kgeeslin@indiana.edu). The acquisition of Spanish copula choice and its relationship to language change. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 24, 3 (2002), 419—50.03—300 Ghaith, G. M. (American U. of Beirut, Lebanon; Email: gghaith@aub.edu.lb). The relationship between cooperative learning, perception of social support, and academic achievement. System (Oxford, UK), 30, 3 (2002), 263—73.03—301 Golato, Peter (U. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA; Email: pgolato@uiuc.edu). Word parsing by late-learning French-English bilinguals. Applied Psycholinguistics (Cambridge, UK), 23, 3 (2002), 417—46.03—302 Gorostiaga, Arantxa and Balluerka, Nekane (U. of the Basque Country; Email: pspgomaa@ss.ehu.es). The influence of the social use and the history of acquisition of Euskera on comprehension and recall of scientific texts in Euskera and Castilian. Language Learning (Malden, MA, USA), 52, 3 (2002), 491—512.03—303 Hada, Yoshiaki, Ogata, Hiroaki and Yano, Yoneo (Tokushima U., Japan; Email: hada@is.tokushima-u.ac.jp). Video-based language learning environment using an online video-editing system. Computer Assisted Language Learning (Lisse, The Netherlands), 15, 4 (2002), 387—408.03—304 Håkansson, Gisela (U. of Lund, Sweden; Email: Gisela.Hakansson@ling.lu.se), Pienemann, Manfred and Sayehli, Susan. Transfer and typological proximity in the context of second language processing. Second Language Research (London, UK), 18, 3 (2002), 250—73.03—305 Hatasa, Yukiko Abe (U. of Iowa, USA; Email: yukiko-hatasa@uiowa.edu). The effects of differential timing in the introduction of Japanese syllabaries on early second language development in Japanese. The Modern Language Journal (Malden, MA, USA), 86, 3 (2002), 349—67.03—306 Hsiao, Tsung-Yuan (Nat. Taiwan Ocean U., Republic of China; Email: tyhsiao@mail.ntou.edu.tw) and Oxford, Rebecca L.. Comparing theories of language learning strategies: A confirmatory factor analysis. The Modern Language Journal (Malden, MA, USA), 86, 3 (2002), 368—83.03—307 Hu, Guangwei (Nat. Inst. of Ed., Nanyang Technological U., Singapore; Email: gwhu@nie.edu.sg). Psychological constraints on the utility of metalinguistic knowledge in second language production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 24, 3 (2002), 347—86.03—308 Hulstijn, Jan (U. of Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Email: hulstijn@hum.uva.nl). Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge. Second Language Research (London, UK), 18, 3 (2002), 193—223.03—309 Itakura, Hiroko (The Hong Kong Polytechnic U.; Email: eghiroko@polyu.edu.hk). Gender and pragmatic transfer in topic development. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK), 15, 2 (2002), 161—83.03—310 Jarvis, Scott (Ohio U., USA; Email: jarvis@ohio.edu). Topic continuity in L2 English article use. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (New York, USA), 24, 3 (2002), 387—418.03—311 Jung, Udo O. H. (U. of Bayreuth, Germany; Email: hmejung@gmx.de). An international bibliography of computer-assisted language learning: Fifth instalment. System (Oxford, UK), 30, 3 (2002), 349—98.03—312 Kim, Daejin (Hansei U., Republic of Korea; Email: daejkim@chollian.net) and Hall, Joan Kelly. The role of an interactive book reading program in the development of second language pragmatic competence. The Modern Language Journal (Malden, MA, USA), 86, 3 (2002), 332—48.03—313 Lee, Eun-Joo (Stanford U., USA; Email: eunlee@stanford.edu). Comparing personal references in English by a native-speaking and a Korean pre-adolescent. English Teaching (Korea), 57, 3 (2002), 125—43.03—314 Lee, Lina (U. of New Hampshire, USA; Email: llee@hopper.unh.edu). Synchronous online exchanges: A study of modification devices on non-native discourse. System (Oxford, UK), 30, 3 (2002), 275—88.03—315 Lee, Siok H. (Burnaby Sch. District & Simon Fraser U., Canada; Email: slee@alpha.sd41.bc.ca) and Carey, Stephen. Explaining Chinese learners' errors in the phonological representations of Latinate derivatives in English: A psycholinguistic perspective. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics (Ottawa, Canada), 5, 1/2 (2002), 65—91.03—316 Liontas, John I. (U. of Notre Dame, IN, USA; Email: jliontas@nd.edu). Exploring second language learners' notions of idiomaticity. System (Oxford, UK), 30, 3 (2002), 289—313.03—317 Macintyre, Peter D. (U. Coll. of Cape Breton, Canada; Email: peter_macintyre@uccb.ca), Baker, Susan C., Clément, Richard and Donovan, Leslie A.. Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning (Malden, MA, USA), 52, 3 (2002), 537—64.03—318 Martínez, Ana Cristina Lahuerta (U. of Oviedo, Asturias, Spain; Email: lahuerta@correo.uniovi.es). Empirical examination of EFL readers' use of rhetorical information. English for Specific Purposes (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), 21, 1 (2002), 81—98.03—319 Mori, Yoshiko (Georgetown U., USA; Email: moriy@georgetown.edu). Individual differences in the integration of information from context and word parts in interpreting unknown kanji words. Applied Psycholinguistics (Cambridge, UK), 23, 3 (2002), 375—97.03—320 Morris, Frank A. (U. of Miami, USA). Negotiation moves and recasts in relation to error types and learner repair in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 35, 4 (2002), 395—404.03—321 O'Grady, William (U. of Hawai'i, USA; Email: ogrady@hawaii.edu) and Yamash*ta, Yoshie. Partial agreement in second-language acquisition. Linguistics (Berlin, Germany), 40, 5 (2002), 1011—19.03—322 Perdue, Clive (Université Paris VIII, France; Email: clive@univ-paris8.fr), Benazzo, Sandra and Giuliano, Patrizia. When finiteness gets marked: The relations between morphosyntactic development and use of scopal items in adult language. Linguistics (Berlin, Germany), 40, 4 (2002), 849—90.03—323 Pichette, François (U. of South Florida, USA; Email: pichette@chuma1.cas.usf.edu). Second-language vocabulary learning and the additivity hypothesis. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics (Ottawa, Canada), 5, 1/2 (2002), 117—30.03—324 Raymond, Patricia M. (U. of Ottawa, Canada) and Parks, Susan. Transitions: Orienting to reading and writing assignments in EAP and MBA contexts. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes (Toronto, Ont.), 59, 1 (2002), 152—80.03—325 Schulz, Renate A. (U. of Arizona, USA). Hilft es die Regel zu wissen um sie anzuwenden? Das Verhältnis von metalinguistischem Bewusstsein und grammatischer Kompetenz in DaF. [Does it help to know the rule to apply it? 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The ideas put forth here do not fit perfectly or entirely into the genre and form of what has established itself as the scholarly journal article. What is put forth, instead, is a juxtaposition of lines of thinking about the scholarly and popular in publishing, past, present and future. As such it may indeed be quite appropriate to the occasion and the questions raised in the call for papers for this special issue of M/C Journal. The ideas put forth here are intended as pieces of an ever-changing puzzle of the making public of scholarship, which, I hope, may in some way fit with both the work of others in this special issue and in the discourse more broadly. The first line of thinking presented takes the form of an historical overview of publishing as context to consider a second line of thinking about the current status and future of publishing. The historical context serves as reminder (and cause for celebration) that publishing has not yet perished, contrary to continued doomsday sooth-saying that has come with each new medium since the advent of print. Instead, publishing has continued to transform and it is precisely the transformation of print, print culture and reading publics that are the focus of this article, in particular, in relation to the question of the boundaries between the scholarly and the popular. What follows is a juxtaposition that is part of an investigation in progress. Presented first, therefore, is a mapping of shifts in print culture from the time of Gutenberg to the twentieth century; second, is a contemporary snapshot of the editorial mandates of more than one hundred member journals of the Canadian Association of Learned Journals (CALJ). What such juxtaposition is able to reveal is open to interpretation, of course. And indeed, as I proceed in my investigation of publishing past, present and future, my interpretations are many. The juxtaposition raises a number of issues: of communities of readers and the cultures of reading publics; of privileged and marginalised texts (as well as their authors and their readers); of access and reach (whether in terms of what is quantifiable or in a much more subtle but equally important sense). In Canada, at present, these issues are also intertwined with changes to research funding policies and some attention is given at the end of this article to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada and its recent/current shift in funding policy. Curiously, current shifts in funding policies, considered alongside an historical overview of publishing, would suggest that although publishing continues to transform, at the same time, as they say, plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose. Republics of Letters and Ghosts in Machines Republics of Letters that formed after the advent of the printing press can be conjured up as distant and almost mythical communities of elite literates, ghosts almost lost in a Gutenberg galaxy that today encompasses (and is embodied in) schools, bookshelves, and digital archives in many places across the globe. Conjuring up ghosts of histories past seems always to reveal ironies, and indeed some of the most interesting ironies of the Gutenberg galaxy involve McLuhanesque reversals or, if not full reversals, then in the least some notably sharp turns. There is a need to define some boundaries (and terms) in the framing of the tracing that follows. Given that the time frame in question spans more than five hundred years (from the advent of Gutenberg’s printing press in the fifteenth century to the turn of the 21st century), the tracing must necessarily be done in broad strokes. With regard to what is meant by the “making public of scholarship” in this paper, by “making public” I refer to accounts historians have given in their attempts to reconstruct a history of what was published either in the periodical press or in books. With regard to scholarship (and the making public of it), as with many things in the history of publishing (or any history), this means different things in different times and in different places. The changing meanings of what can be termed “scholarship” and where and how it historically has been made public are the cornerstones on which this article (and a history of the making public of scholarship) turn. The structure of this paper is loosely chronological and is limited to the print cultures and reading publics in France, Britain, and what would eventually be called the US and Canada, and what follows here is an overview of changes in how scholarly and popular texts and publics are variously defined over the course of history. The Construction of Reading Publics and Print Culture In any consideration of “print culture” and reading publics, historical or contemporary, there are two guiding principles that historians suggest should be kept in mind, and, though these may seem self-evident, they are worth stating explicitly (perhaps precisely because they seem self-evident). The first is a reminder from Adrian Johns that “the very identity of print itself has had to be made” (2 italics in original). Just as the identity of print cultures are made, similarly, a history of reading publics and their identities are made, by looking to and interpreting such variables as numbers and genres of titles published and circulated, dates and locations of collections, and information on readers’ experiences of texts. Elizabeth Eisenstein offers a reminder of the “widely varying circ*mstances” (92) of the print revolution and an explicit acknowledgement of such circ*mstances provides the second, seemingly self-evident guiding principle: that the construction of reading publics and print culture must not only be understood as constructed, but also that such constructions ought not be understood as uniform. The purpose of the reconstructions of print cultures and reading publics presented here, therefore, is not to arrive at final conclusions, but rather to identify patterns that prove useful in better understanding the current status (and possible future) of publishing. The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries—Boom, then Busted by State and Church In search of what could be termed “scholarship” following the mid-fifteenth century boom of the early days of print, given the ecclesiastical and state censorship in Britain and France and the popularity of religious texts of the 15th and 16th centuries, arguably the closest to “scholarship” that we can come is through the influence of the Italian Renaissance and the revival and translation (into Latin, and to a far lesser extent, vernacular languages) of the classics and indeed the influence of the Italian Renaissance on the “print revolution” is widely recognised by historians. Historians also recognise, however, that it was not long until “the supply of unpublished texts dried up…[yet for authors] to sell the fruits of their intellect—was not yet common practice before the late 16th century” (Febvre and Martin 160). Although this reference is to the book trade in France, in Britain, and in the regions to become the US and Canada, reading of “pious texts” was similarly predominant in the early days of print. Yet, the humanist shift throughout the 16th century is evidenced by titles produced in Paris in the first century of print: in 1501, in a total of 88 works, 53 can be categorised as religious, with 25 categorised as Latin, Greek, or Humanist authors; as compared to titles produced in 1549, in a total of 332 titles, 56 can be categorised as religious with 204 categorised as Latin, Greek, or Humanist authors (Febvre and Martin 264). The Seventeenth Century—Changes in the Political and Print Landscape In the 17th century, printers discovered that their chances of profitability (and survival) could be improved by targeting and developing a popular readership through the periodical press (its very periodicity and relative low cost both contributed to its accessibility by popular publics) in Europe as well as in North America. It is worthwhile to note, however, that “to the end of the seventeenth century, both literacy and leisure were virtually confined to scholars and ‘gentlemen’” (Steinberg 119) particularly where books were concerned and although literacy rates were still low, through the “exceptionally literate villager” there formed “hearing publics” who would have printed texts read to them (Eisenstein 93). For the literate members of the public interested not only in improving their social positions through learning, but also with intellectual (or spiritual or existential) curiosity piqued by forbidden books, it is not surprising that Descartes “wrote in French to a ‘lay audience … open to new ideas’” (Jacob 41). The 17th century also saw the publication of the first scholarly journals. There is a tension that becomes evident in the seventeenth century that can be seen as a tension characteristic of print culture, past and present: on the one hand, the housing of scholarship in scholarly journals as a genre distinct from the genre of the popular periodicals can be interpreted as a continued pattern of (elitist) divide in publics (as seen earlier between the oral and the written word, between Latin and the vernacular, between classic texts and popular texts); while, on the other hand, some thinkers/scholars of the day had an interest in reaching a wider audience, as printers always had, which led to the construction and fragmentation of audiences (whether the printer’s market for his goods or the scholar’s marketplace of ideas). The Eighteenth Century—Republics of Letters Become Concrete and Visible The 18th century saw ever-increasing literacy rates, early copyright legislation (Statute of Anne in 1709), improved printing technology, and ironically (or perhaps on the contrary, quite predictably) severe censorship that in effect led to an increased demand for forbidden books and a vibrant and international underground book trade (Darnton and Roche 138). Alongside a growing book trade, “the pulpit was ultimately displaced by the periodical press” (Eisenstein 94), which had become an “established institution” (Steinberg 125). One history of the periodical press in France finds that the number of periodicals (to remain in publication for three or more years) available to the reading public in 1745 numbered 15, whereas in 1785 this increased to 82 (Censer 7). With regard to scholarly periodicals, another study shows that between 1790 and 1800 there were 640 scientific-technological periodicals being published in Europe (Kronick 1961). Across the Atlantic, earlier difficulties in cultivating intellectual life—such as haphazard transatlantic exchange and limited institutions for learning—began to give way to a “republic of letters” that was “visible and concrete” (Hall 417). The Nineteenth Century—A Second Boom and the Rise of the Periodical Press By the turn of the 19th century, visible and concrete republics of letters become evident on both sides of the Atlantic in the boom in book publishing and in the periodical press, scholarly and popular. State and church controls on printing/publishing had given way to the press as the “fourth estate” or a free press as powerful force. The legislation of public education brought increased literacy rates among members of successive generations. One study of literacy rates in Britain, for example, shows that in the period from 1840–1870 literacy rates increased by 35–70 per cent; then from 1870–1900, literacy increased by 78–261 per cent (Mitch 76). Further, with the growth and changes in universities, “history, languages and literature and, above all, the sciences, became an established part of higher education for the first time,” which translated into growing markets for book publishers (Feather 117). Similarly the periodical press reached ever-increasing and numerous reading publics: one estimate of the increase finds the publication of nine hundred journals in 1800 jumping to almost sixty thousand in 1901 (Brodman, cited in Kronick 127). Further, the important role of the periodical press in developing communities of readers was recognised by publishers, editors and authors of the time, something equally recognised by present-day historians describing the “generic mélange of the periodical … [that] particularly lent itself to the interpenetration of language and ideas…[and] the verbal and conceptual interconnectedness of science, politics, theology, and literature” (Dawson, Noakes and Topham 30). Scientists recognised popular periodicals as “important platforms for addressing a non-specialist but culturally powerful public … [they were seen as public] performances [that] fulfilled important functions in making the claims of science heard among the ruling élite” (Dawson et al. 11). By contrast, however, the scholarly journals of the time, while also increasing in number, were becoming increasingly specialised along the same disciplinary boundaries being established in the universities, fulfilling a very different function of forming scholarly and discipline-specific discourse communities through public (published) performances of a very different nature. The Twentieth Century—The Tension Between Niche Publics and Mass Publics The long-existing tension in print culture between the differentiation of reading publics on the one hand, and the reach to ever-expanding reading publics on the other, in the twentieth century becomes a tension between what have been termed “niche-marketing” and “mass marketing,” between niche publics and mass publics. What this meant for the making public of scholarship was that the divides between discipline-specific discourse communities (and their corresponding genres) became more firmly established and yet, within each discipline, there was further fragmentation and specialisation. The niche-mass tension also meant that although in earlier print culture, “the lines of demarcation between men of science, men of letters, and scientific popularizers were far from clear, and were constantly being renegotiated” (Dawson et al 28), with the increasing professionalisation of academic work (and careers), lines of demarcation became firmly drawn between scholarly and popular titles and authors, as well as readers, who were described as “men of science,” as “educated men,” or as “casual observers” (Klancher 90). The question remains, however, as one historian of science asks, “To whom did the reading public go in order to learn about the ultimate meaning of modern science, the professionals or the popularizers?” (Lightman 191). By whom and for whom, where and how scholarship has historically been made public, are questions worthy of consideration if contemporary scholars are to better understand the current status (and possible future) for the making public of scholarship. A Snapshot of Scholarly Journals in Canada and Current Changes in Funding Policies The here and now of scholarly journal publishing in Canada (a growing, but relatively modest scholarly journal community, compared to the number of scholarly journals published in Europe and the US) serves as an interesting microcosm through which to consider how scholarly journal publishing has evolved since the early days of print. What follows here is an overview of the membership of the Canadian Association of Learned Journals (CALJ), in particular: (1) their target readers as identifiable from their editorial mandates; (2) their print/online/open-access policies; and (3) their publishers (all information gathered from the CALJ website, http://www.calj-acrs.ca/). Analysis of the collected data for the 100 member journals of CALJ (English, French and bilingual journals) with available information on the CALJ website is presented in Table 1 (below). A few observations are noteworthy: (1) in terms of readers, although all 100 journals identify a scholarly audience as their target readership, more than 40% of the journal also identify practitioners, policy-makers, or general readers as members of their target audience; (2) more than 25% of the journals publish online as well as or instead of print editions; and (3) almost all journals are published either by a Canadian university or, in one case, a college (60%) or a scholarly or professional society (31%). Table 1: Target Readership, Publishing Model and Publishers, CALJ Members (N=100) Journals with identifiable scholarly target readership 100 Journals with other identifiable target readership: practitioner 35 Journals with other identifiable target readership: general readers 18 Journals with other identifiable target readership: policy-makers/government 10 Total journals with identifiable target readership other than scholarly 43 Journals publishing in print only 56 Journals publishing in print and online 24 Journals publishing in print, online and open access 16 Journals publishing online only and open access 4 Journals published through a Canadian university press, faculty or department 60 Journals published by a scholarly or professional society 31 Journals published by a research institute 5 Journals published by the private sector 4 In the context of the historical overview presented earlier, this data raises a number of questions. The number of journals with target audiences either within or beyond the academy raises issues akin to the situation in the early days of print, when published works were primarily in Latin, with only 22 per cent in vernacular languages (Febvre and Martin 256), thereby strongly limiting access and reach to diverse audiences until the 17th century when Latin declined as the international language (Febvre and Martin 275) and there is a parallel to scholarly journal publishing and their changing readership(s). Diversity in audiences gradually developed in the early days of print, as Febvre and Martin (263) show by comparing the number of churchmen and lawyers with library collections in Paris: from 1480–1500 one lawyer and 24 churchmen had library collections, compared to 1551–1600, when 71 lawyers and 21 churchmen had library collections. Although the distinctions between present-day target audiences of Canadian scholarly journals (shown in Table 1, above) and 16th-century churchmen or lawyers no doubt are considerable, again there is a parallel with regard to changes in reading audiences. Similarly, the 18th-century increase in literacy rates, education, and technological advances finds a parallel in contemporary questions of computer literacy and access to scholarship (see Willinsky, “How,” Access, “Altering,” and If Only). Print culture historians and historians of science, as noted above, recognise that historically, while scholarly periodicals have increasingly specialised and popular periodicals have served as “important platforms for addressing a non-specialist but culturally powerful public…[and] fulfill[ing] important functions in making the claims of science heard among the ruling élite” (Dawson 11), there is adrift in current policies changes (and in the CALJ data above) a blurring of boundaries that harkens back to earlier days of print culture. As Adrian John reminded us earlier, “the very identity of print itself has had to be made” (2, italics in original) and the same applies to identities or cultures of print and the members of that culture: namely, the readers, the audience. The identities of the readers of scholarship are being made and re-made, as editorial mandates extend the scope of journals beyond strict, academic disciplinary boundaries and as increasing numbers of journals publish online (and open access). In Canada, changes in scholarly journal funding by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada (as well as changes in SSHRC funding for research more generally) place increasing focus on impact factors (an international trend) as well as increased attention on the public benefits and value of social sciences and humanities research and scholarship (see SSHRC 2004, 2005, 2006). There is much debate in the scholarly community in Canada about the implications and possibilities of the direction of the changing funding policies, not least among members of the scholarly journal community. As noted in the table above, most scholarly journal publishers in Canada are independently published, which brings advantages of autonomy but also the disadvantage of very limited budgets and there is a great deal of concern about the future of the journals, about their survival amidst the current changes. Although the future is uncertain, it is perhaps worthwhile to be reminded once again that contrary to doomsday sooth-saying that has come time and time again, publishing has not perished, but rather it has continued to transform. I am inclined against making normative statements about what the future of publishing should be, but, looking at the accounts historians have given of the past and looking at the current publishing community I have come to know in my work in publishing, I am confident that the resourcefulness and commitment of the publishing community shall prevail and, indeed, there appears to be a good deal of promise in the transformation of scholarly journals in the ways they reach their audiences and in what reaches those audiences. Perhaps, as is suggested by the Canadian Centre for Studies in Publishing (CCSP), the future is one of “inventing publishing.” References Canadian Association of Learned Journals. Member Database. 10 June 2008 ‹http://www.calj-acrs.ca/>. Canadian Centre for Studies in Publishing. 10 June 2008. ‹http://www.ccsp.sfu.ca/>. Censer, Jack. The French Press in the Age of Enlightenment. London: Routledge, 1994. Darnton, Robert, Estienne Roche. Revolution in Print: The Press in France, 1775–1800. Berkeley: U of California P, 1989. Dawson, Gowan, Richard Noakes, and Jonathan Topham. Introduction. Science in the Nineteenth-century Periodical: Reading the Magazine of Nature. Ed. Geoffrey Cantor, Gowan Dawson, Richard Noakes, and Jonathan Topham. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. 1–37. Eisenstein, Elizabeth. The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983 Feather, John. A History of British Publishing. New York: Routledge, 2006. Febvre, Lucien, and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800. London: N.L.B., 1979. Jacob, Margaret. Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West. New York: Oxford UP, 1997. Johns, Adrian. The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1998. Hall, David, and Hugh Armory. The Colonial Book in the Atlantic World. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. Klancher, Jon. The Making of English Reading Audiences. Madison: U of Wisconsin P, 1987. Kronick, David. A History of Scientific and Technical Periodicals: The Origins and Development of the Scientific and Technological Press, 1665–1790. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1961. ---. "Devant le deluge" and Other Essays on Early Modern Scientific Communication. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2004. Lightman, Bernard. Victorian Science in Context. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1997. Mitch, David. The Rise of Popular Literacy in Victorian England: The Influence of Private choice and Public Policy. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1991. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. Granting Council to Knowledge Council: Renewing the Social Sciences and Humanities in Canada, Volume 1, 2004. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. Granting Council to Knowledge Council: Renewing the Social Sciences and Humanities in Canada, Volume 3, 2005. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. Moving Forward As a Knowledge Council: Canada’s Place in a Competitive World. 2006. Steinberg, Sigfrid. Five Hundred Years of Printing. London: Oak Knoll Press, 1996. Willinsky, John. “How to be More of a Public Intellectual by Making your Intellectual Work More Public.” Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy 3.1 (2006): 92–95. ---. The Access Principle: The Case for Open Access to Research and Scholarship. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006. ---. “Altering the Material Conditions of Access to the Humanities.” Ed. Peter Trifonas and Michael Peters. Deconstructing Derrida: Tasks for the New Humanities. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. 118–36. ---. If Only We Knew: Increasing the Public Value of Social-Science Research. New York: Routledge, 2000.